Background: The endoscopic transorbital approach (ETOA) provides minimally invasive access to the skull base but requires orbital retraction across key zones to establish a surgical corridor. Retraction is essential for ...

The cerebellopontine angle (CPA) is a surgically complex region due to its dense neurovascular anatomy. Traditional microscopic retrosigmoid approaches provide limited visualization in deep recesses. The fully endoscopic ...

Background: Surgical freedom quantifies proximal instrument maneuverability with fixed distal targets, critical for comparing neurosurgical approaches. Current methods lack standardization, using different geometries without ...